SACRED SPACE ON THE TRIANGULAR PLAN

The Holy Trinity Uniate church in Greater Svorotva, Belarus

J. KRZYSZTOF LENARTOWICZ

Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland

Abstract:

The subject of this article concerns two Uniate churches dedicated to the Holy Trinity in the village of Greater Svorotva near Baranovicze (Bielarus), chronologically following each other, both established on an equilateral triangle plan. These churches belong to a group of five sacred buildings of such shape known to have existed in the territory of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In this paper an attempt is made to interpret the basis for the emergence of such an architectural spatial concept against the backdrop of other designs and constructions in Europe between the 11^th and the 20^th centuries. The proposition of the paper is that a direct relation held between the spatial shape of the church, its dedication and the cultural and political situation in the region. These churches inspire further studies of the use of the equilateral triangle plan in architecture, particularly for sacred buildings. In the future such studies should result in a more complete review and perhaps a full catalogue of buildings established on such a plan.

The centralized space

The centralized space form with a plan characterized by more than one symmetry axes (circle has an infinite number of symmetry axes, octagon – 16, hexagon – 6, square – 4, equilateral triangle – 3) was suited particularly well to symbolic functions related to a cult or a commemoration of a person or an event. This article is limited to considerations of sacred space. The central form alone makes the space monumental, independently of its scale. An excellent example of such an impression made by a centralized space form is the Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio church in Rome by Bramante, established on a circular plan and rather small in dimensions.

The use of a centralized plan is characteristic to a number of types of temples built as tombs of persons considered holy. A good example of it is the numerous so-called "marabouts" – most frequently on a square plan – built in Arab countries. Many buildings of central space forms belong to the leading architectural works of their epochs. Among them are: unrivalled Roman Pantheon in Rome (118–126 AD), where centrality is based not only on the circular plan but also on the sphere inscribed in the interior; early Christian tombs (e.g. those of Theodoricus the Great of 6^th century or of Gallia Placidia), the San Nazaro e Celso Church in Ravenna of the 5^th century; the octagonal (such a polygon being a symbol of the Resurrection) St. Vitalis' church in Ravenna of 6^th century; the churches built according to the pattern of the Holy Sepulchre Church in Jerusalem (e.g. the dodecagonal Sta. Vera Cruz church in Segovia of 12^th –13^th centuries) ; Gothic churches with central plans, e.g. quasi-dodecagonal Liebfrauenkirche in Trier of 12^th century ¹⁾ ; modern churches, e.g. St Peter's Basilica in Rome – erected over the tomb of the Apostle – in its original Renaissance form given to it by its first designers, Bramante and Michelangelo, starting 1506. Also baptisteries often have a central space form (e.g. the octagonal Baptistery in Florence of 12^th century). The central plan appeared in Baroque too (e.g. the octagonal San Lorenzo church in Turin by Guarino Guarini, 1668). The unbuilt neoclassical Newton's Cenotaph by Étienne-Louis Boulée (end of 18^th c.) also should be mentioned here. Symbolic memorial of the great scientist was to be in the form of an enormous, 150 m in diameter, hollowed sphere. The central point of the sphere is accessible, and allows a perception of this centrality. Yet it was the Easatern churches that fancied the central plan most and demonstrated the longest lasting attachment to it.

An analysis of small wooden Orthodox churches in the territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth shows that, among others, central plans such as: the octagonal plan, the octagonal plan appended with a cross of four squared arms, or the Greek cross plan containing five squares were used. It is also the case with stone Orthodox churches – many of those were built similarly on the central plan ²⁾.

Also Jewish synagogues in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, both wooden and masonry ones, represented centralized settings: a square or a nine-polar plan ³⁾. Characteristic to the Polish lands was a synagogue design in which the bimah occupied the central position in the inner space. The pillars isolating the bimah sometimes served as construction elements for the ceiling and the roof, what additionally underlined the centralized composition.

The space with an equilateral triangle plan
– A review of examples

As mentioned above, equilateral triangle belongs to central forms as it has three symmetry axes. It is more theoretically so since it was used extremely rarely. This rarity resulted mainly from practical reasons. The walls converging at the 60° angle pose a serious problem in the interior as to how to use the space converging to none, while in the exterior they cause difficulties in building up the cusp with the material. The two problems are particularly acute for the buildings of restricted size. The Middle Ages offered only two examples of such triangular buildings: one early Medieval and another late Medieval. Two churches in question rationalized their triangular plans for functionality in two different ways.

The oldest such church found is the church in Planès (Roussillon, France), built of freestone in the 12^th or the early 13^th century, dome-like topped, on an equilateral triangle plan, the sides of which being much flattened arcs. Three large absidioles serve as expansions to the inner space and improve the utilization of the nave. The basis for this design is certainly an equilateral triangle. The church is oriented, although not with a vertex of the triangle but with one of the absidioles pointing east. Once the author made such a design decision, the entrance had to be placed in one of the vertices of the triangle and his difficulty in solving thus created problem is still quite striking.

Planès (Roussillon, France), Notre Dame de la Merci church, 12^th/13^th c.
The ground-floor plan as measured by Maurice Thaon, 1895.

Viollet-le-Duc suggests that originally this church was dedicated to the Holy Trinity ⁴⁾. Wolfgang Götz, however, considers this hypothesis unfounded ⁵⁾.




Planès (Roussillon, France), Notre Dame de la Merci church, 12^th/13^th c.
General view.
From the Internet.



Planès (Roussillon, France), Notre Dame de la Merci church, 12^th/13^th c.
General view.
From the Internet.

The unique example from the Gothic period is the hospital church (1422–1497), dedicated to the Holy Spirit, of the hospice in Bruck an der Mur, Germany, which from the 18^th century was used as living quarters. Also here, from the very beginning its architects attempted to improve the usefulness of the inner space: the triangle the plan's geometry had been based upon was altered to an irregular hexagon by flattening its vertices at the 1/6^th of the wall length.

Bruck-an-der-Mur, Germany, Dreifaltigkeitskirche, 1422-1497.
Ground-floor plan.
From: Wolfgang Götz, Zentralbau und Zentralbautendenz in der gotischen Architektur.
Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1968, p. 261.

The no longer existing, likely a stellar vault over the central space was set on a regular hexagon plan. Götz claims that "the models for such a specific layout cannot be found; therefore it must be regarded as a late and isolated 15^th century solution that seems to have anticipated the corresponding forms of the Baroque." ⁶⁾

In the modern times several architects were interested in the triangular plan, but the majority of their designs never left the paper, most probably because the investors concluded that such a plan would be excessively troublesome. If despite this, triangular designs were indeed carried out, it was certainly for the symbolic significance of the triangle. Complexes dedicated to the Holy Trinity probably are the only buildings set on such a plan that had not been appended with additional functional elements blurring the triangularity of the original plan.

In the portfolio of the Elizabethan architect John Thorpe, which subsequently came into Sir John Soane's possession, two architectural drawings of castle buildings can be found. They depict the Longford Castle (Wiltshire), in which a Holy Trinity diagram was sketched in the centre of the triangular courtyard. This castle was built in 1591. Among comprehensive designs of this portfolio there is also a drawing of a building on a triangular plan with an octagonal inner court (the latter spatially reminding the subsequent Pozzo's plan) as well as a drawing of another building which was set on a triangular plan ⁷⁾.

The Triangular Lodge of Thomas Tresham in Rushton (Northamptonshire) (1593–1597) constitutes a sacred building full of encoded meanings, established on an impeccably equilateral triangle plan. Its author, who built it for himself, took no liberty in compromising in any way the form for the functionality ⁸⁾.

Rushton, England, The Triangular Lodge. 1593-1597, Thomas Tresham.
From: Robert Harbison, The Built, the Unbuilt and the Unbuildable. In Pursuit of Architectural Meaning,
MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1992, p. 71.

In Baroque the intentional complexity went even further.

"Illusions, meant to trick the observer's impression of the shape of the architecture, were common. This was architecture for emotion, for artistic expression. As such it shied away from the geometry and philosophy of the past, especially that of the Renaissance. Floor plans of Baroque churches often incorporated two new shapes, rarely used before: the triangle and the oval. (…) Symbolically, the triangle represents the Holy Trinity, but aesthetically represents "yet only a principle of creation, forming the passage between the transcendent and manifest realms..." Despite this, it had little role to play in a geometry based on squares and circles. Historically, architects have avoided triangle-shaped rooms, because the tight angles are awkward and un-humanist. In a period marked by avoidance of human dimension, however, the triangle became fair game." ⁹⁾.

Hence, the triangular shape of little practical value could meet its realization just when caprice outweighed common sense, and artificiality was the desired and the defining attribute of art. This notwithstanding one can point at no church whose plan would be a pure equilateral triangle. All known designs and realizations either appended the starting triangle by its redoubling or by adding apses or other forms to it, or transformed it into a hexagon by cutting off the vertices. All that, however, while easing the functional adversities, have violated the firmness of the form.

The plan of the San Ivo della Sapienza church in Rome designed by Francesco Borromini consists of two equilateral triangles superimposed one on the other so that they produce a six arm star (the symbol of Wisdom) with a hexagon inside. In the view of the church's dome, and especially in its projection at the cornice level, a motif of an equilateral triangle with its vertices cut off by concave lines can clearly be seen ¹⁰⁾. . In essence, at the floor level this idea is identical to that realized in Planès, i.e. of an equilateral triangle expanded with absidioles into some sort of hexagon.

Rome, San Ivo della Sapienza church, 1642-1660, Francesco Borromini.
From: J. Connors, S. Ivo alla Sapienza: "The First Three Minutes".
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, LV, 1966, Fig. 12.

Another church by Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome (1637–1641), has a remarkable plan based upon two contiguous equilateral triangles to form a lozenge within which two circles are inscribed joint by arcs so as to create an oval. At the level of the cornice of the dome this plan becomes oval, and the starting triangles no longer play a clear role. The originality of this church made a great impression on the contemporaries. The Procurator General of the Order of the Discalced Trinitarians boasted that architects all over Europe were requesting copies of the church's plan, and that "in the opinion of everybody nothing similar with regard to artistic merit, caprice, excellence, and singularity could be found anywhere in the world" ¹¹⁾. One should note here that the Trinitarian order was the investor in this church.

Rome, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane church, 1637-1641, Francesco Borromini.
From: David Watkin, A History of Western Architecture.
Laurence King, London 1996, p. 243.

In his book Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum (Rome, 1700), Andrea Pozzo included a design of a thirty-person monastery building established on an equilateral triangle plan with a hexagonal church in its centre. The vertices of the triangle were flattened with concave arcs of large radii ¹²⁾.

Andrea Pozzo, design of a monastery with a church, 1700.
Ground-floor plan.
From: A. Pozzo, Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum (1700), Fig. 109.
The Jagiellonian Library, Cracow.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.

Georg Dientzenhofer (1643-1689) was the architect of the Holy Trinity pilgrimage church, called the "Kappel," located on the Glasberg Mountain, 628 m., near Waldsassen, Germany. Dientzenhofer spectacularly succeeded in translating the idea of the Holy Trinity's unity into the architecture. The cornerstone for this church was laid in 1685. In every of its elements the building is "dominated" by the number of three. However, also here there are three conchs added around the original triangle. Each of these conchs has three niches, each with an altar. At the junctions of the walls and the conchs, three round, lofty towers with onion-shaped domes rise over the steep tent-roof with three lanterns. The entire complex is surrounded by a three-lane ambulatory.

Glasberg n. Walssassen (Germany), Dreifaltigkeitskirche Kappel, 1685-1689, Georg Dientzenhofer.
General view.   From the Internet.



Glasberg n. Walssassen (Germany), Dreifaltigkeitskirche Kappel, 1685-1689, Georg Dientzenhofer.
Genral view.   From the Internet.

Somewhat subsequent to that church is the pilgrimage church also dedicated to the Holy Trinity in Stadl-Paura in Upper Austria, (1714–1724), designed by J. M. Prunner. It is built on a triangular plan too, also has three towers, three altars and three portals. However, the triangle has been transformed into a highly complex form and visually the original triangle can be traced only on paper.

Stadl-Paura, Austria, Dreifaltigkeitskirche, 1714-1724, J. M. Prunner.
Ground-floor plan.
From the Internet.

The hospital St. Clement church of the Knights Hospitallers in Münster, Germany, by Johann C. Schlaun turned out rather a rotunda, and the quasi-triangular outline seen from the outside is quite complicated (similarly to Stadl-Paura's). Such a shape resulted from the layout of the walls of the church and the hospital buildings.

In Moravia, John-Blaise Santini-Aichel built the Sta. Anna in Three Persons chapel in Penenske Břežany near Prague (1705–1707) set on a plan derived from an equilateral triangle with slightly concave sides and cut-off vertices.

Panenske Břežany near Prague, Sta. Anne chapel, 1705-1707, J. Blazej Santini-Aichel.
Ground-floor plan.
From: M. Horyna, Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel. Karolinum, Praha 1998, p. 226.



Panenske Břežany near Prague, Sta. Anne chapel, 1705-1707, J. Blazej Santini-Aichel.
View of the entrance side
From: M. Horyna, Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel. Karolinum, Praha 1998, p. 226.

This architect was also the author of a turret (1725) in Nadryby, set on a spherical triangle plan to which a small chapel was later added, as well as the author of a chapel in Ostružno (1720) dedicated to the Holy Trinity.

Ostružno n. Jicin, Holy Trinity chapel, cca. 1720, attributed to J. B. Santini-Aichel.
Ground-floor plan.
From: M. Horyna, Jan Blazej Santini-Aichel. Karolinum, Praha 1998.



Ostruzno n. Jicin, Holy Trinity chapel, cca. 1720, attributed to J. B. Santini-Aichel.
From the Internet.

Also another church in Andelska Hora n. Karlove Vary by an unknown architect has been established on a triangular plan.

The chapel constituting the west-end of the palace in Annency, France, (18^th century) has an approximately triangular plan, arising from the shape of the small island on which the palace is located. Consequently, this plan was the result more of the site's topography than of a purposeful design.

In Hungary one can find an 18^th century triangular church in the town of Aba, west of Budapest.

In Poland there is a Baroque church in Stroza n. Krasnik, established on an equilateral triangle plan, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Elaboration of the corners in its plan is remarkable. An arch of relatively small radius was introduced without deforming the "trangularity" of the church.

Stroza n. Krasnik, The Holy Trinity church, 1766-1767.
Ground-floor plan.
From: Katalog zabytkow sztuki w Polsce [The Catalogue of Art Monuments in Poland],
vol. VIII, R. Brykowski, E. Rosinska and Z. Winiarz, eds., Book no. 9, Krasnik District. ISPAN, Warszawa 1961.



Stroza n. Krasnik, The Holy Trinity church, 1766-1767.
General view.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.



Stroza n. Krasnik, The Holy Trinity church, 1766-1767.
Detail of the front corner.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.

Also, some Calvary chapels use this shape. The House of Annas in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska (1609–1617) designed by Paul Baudarth turns the viewer's attention by the deformation of the initial triangle, the corners of which are cut off and by the pilasters which are set on the part of the thus created wall.

Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Poland, The House of Annas, 1609-1617, Paul Baurath.
General view.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.



Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Poland, The House of Annas, 1609-1617, Paul Baurath.
The dome's interior.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.

The Calvary complex of Gora Sw. Anny [Sta. Anna Mountain], subsequent by one century, imitates to a great extent the solutions from Kalwaria Zebrzydowska. The Palace of Annas has its corners cut off in a similar way. Flat pilasters mark here not the centres but the turns of the walls.

Gora Sw. Anny, Opole Silesia, Palace of Annas, 18^th c.
General view.
Fot. J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.



Gora Sw. Anny, Opole Silesia, Palace of Annas, 18^th c.
Detail of a corner.
Fot. J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.

Later buildings

Buildings established on a triangle or trefoil symmetry are quite rare. Among them are: the three-sided Sepulchral Church by Sir John Soane (late 18^th century). The open Flagellation Chapel of the Stations of the Cross on the Calvary paths in the village of Wiele (1923) is a 20^th century example.

Wiele, Pomerania, Poland, Flagellation Chapel, 1923.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2004.

The Finnish church in the city centre of Hyvinkaa, north of Helsinki, by Aarno Ruusuvuori (1961), has a rhomboid plan; however since the church occupies only half of plan's area, it was actually established on a triangular plan. Its vertical cross-section is also triangular ¹³⁾.

Uniate and Roman Catholic churches in Lithuania

From the 16^th to the 18^th centuries the eastern borderland of the multiethnic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a melting pot of nationalities and hence of genes too, was the region where experiments were done in various fields. In there, a lot was possible. Different whims of the owners of huge estates led to original ideas and their realizations, also in architecture, some of which have now been forgotten.

The churches of the Eastern denominations built in the 17^th and the 18^th centuries in the vast territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were predominantly Uniate or Greek Catholic churches. Some earlier Eastern Orthodox churches were converted into Uniate churches too. In the newly built church buildings of that time attempts to merge forms characteristic to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox temples can clearly be discerned. Such attempts can be traced mainly inside the churches, where original solutions to the choirs hanging over the naves were applied ¹⁴⁾.

Roman Catholic and Uniate churches that were erected on equilateral triangle plans amount to but a small group. Yet these constitute the basic topic of this paper. Except for two Uniate churches built subsequently to each other in Greater Svorotva, there are no indications of any mutual influence between such church buildings. The list of these churches follows in chronological order.

1. Wooden Uniate church in Biesiady, near Minsk (c. 1685); destroyed in 1922;
2. Stone church dedicated to the Crucified Jesus in Poniewiezyk (Panveziukas, Kaunas district); founded in 1747 by the castellan of Vitebsk, Szymon [Simon] Syruc, and rebuilt in the mid-19^th century;
   
   
   
   
   Poniewiezyk (Panvieziukas), Samogitia, Lithuania, Church of the Crucified Jesus, 1747.
   Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.
   
   
3. Wooden Uniate church of 1747 in Greater Svorotva; no longer existing;
   
   
4. Wooden St. Vincent Ferrer church in Degucie (Deguciai) (Klaipeda district, Szylokarczma area, Lithuania) of 1757; funded by Wojnice's [Voynice] starosta, Gen. Tadeusz [Thaddeus] Billewicz ¹⁵⁾ ;
   
   
   
   
   Degucie (Deguciai), Samogitia, Lithuania, St. Vincent Ferrer church, 1757. Ground-floor plan.
   From: A. Jakevičienė, Architektura drewnianych kosciolow na Zmudzi w XVIII w.
   [The Architecture of Timber Churches in Samogitia in 18^th c.]
   [in:] Sztuka pograniczy Rzeczypospolitej [The Art of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Borderlands].
   Arx Regia, Warszawa 1998, p. 217, Fig. 14.
   
   
   
   Degucie (Deguciai), Samogitia, Lithuania, St. Vincent Ferrer church, 1757.
   General view.
   Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz, 2005.
   
5. Stone Uniate church in Greater Svorotva of 1823 that replaced the earlier wooden one; built by the foundation of the Niezabitowski family.

Leaving to another paper considerations on the northern churches in Samogitia [Zmudz], below we discuss the Uniate and Orthodox churches in the Novogrodek and the Vilna districts.

Wooden Uniate church in Biesiady

The now non-existent Uniate parish church (since 1840 Russian Orthodox) in Biesiady (the former Vilia district, Brzesc diocese, Minsk province) was erected around 1685. Its dedication remains unknown. In 1804 Alexander Strzelbnicki was its collator and Jerzy [George] Werycha its parish priest ¹⁶⁾. The church was described as:

"A building of an unusual architecture, in the shape of a triangle with its angles cut-off, thus forming an irregular hexagon. (…) In close vicinity of the hill on which the church is built, the Udra River flows, an Ilia River's tributary." ¹⁷⁾

In 1992, S.A. Sergachev closely analyzed the setting of the church outlined here. He tried to establish what precisely the "irregularity" of the nave's hexagon, certainly inscribed into the equilateral triangle of the outer walls, meant:

"From the triangle of the outside walls the vertices were cut off and additional rooms were located therein. The plan of the nave in the shape of a hexagon with unequal sides could have been obtained in two ways. First – the supplementary rooms in the corners of the main façade had a smaller area than the sacristy located behind the altar; for good reason then the sacristy was called 'high tower'. The second way could have been such that the vertices at the main façade wall were cut off rather at the angle of 90° than 60° relative to this façade's line. But then the number of grooves [in the walls' beams – JKL] in the corners and at the walls' intersection points would have been increased to three. This seems to favour the first solution." ¹⁸⁾

The wooden Uniate church in Greater Svorotva

The original church was built in 1747. It was established on an equilateral triangle plan ¹⁹⁾. A description of the church building can be found in the Protocol of a visitation in 1798 ²⁰⁾. This description is so detailed that it allows for a precise reconstruction of the outer form and of the interior of the church. We quote it explicitly:

"The church dedicated to the Holy Trinity, in the estate of The Most Honourable Niezabitowski, the chamberlain of Novogrodek, wooden, built as a triangle; roof covered with wood shingles, with one larger central dome and three smaller ones in the corners, all topped with iron crosses; in each wall double, hinged doors, one with external lock; inside the church brick floor, the walls and the ceiling fully painted; a balustered choir elevated around the walls; in the corners three sacristies with hinged doors, in one of them a carpentry-work altar with a painting of Our Lady (…); in total six large windows and three smaller ones; in the church's centre an altar carved in wood, on a stone pedestal; on altar's top a wooden gilded crown with angles holding it, also carved in wood. On the first side a painting of the Holy Trinity, on the second that of St. Nicolas, and on the third of Virgin Mary; on each of the two pedestals a pair of candlesticks and one altar towel; on the first a painted ciborium which three small doors with locks, ubi asservatur sanctissimum in a tin can; under a cloth spread a small portable altar with the image of Jesus Christ."

From this Protocol we also learn of the date of the foundation:

"The foundation act of this church made by The Honourable Mikolaj [Nicolas] and Agnieszka [Agnes] (nee Domostowska) Owsiany, the Treasury clerks of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, on the eighteenth day of June 1747, has been deposited in authenticity in the Metropolitan Archives; as a 1778 extract from the city records of Novogrodek it finds itself in the church".

S.A. Sergachev ²¹⁾. gives a reconstruction drawing of the regular hexagonal internal plan of this unusual church.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity wooden Uniate church, 1747.
View and schematic ground-floor plan according to the 1798 description.
From: S.A. Sergachev, Bieloruskoye narodnoye zodchestvo [The Belarussian Folk Architecture], 1992, p. 194.

According to another visitation report of 1804 ²²⁾, two wooden Uniate churches did exist: one in Greater Svorotva (collator: Jakub Niezabitowski; administrator: Gabriel Sawicz) where the parish congregation included 407 members, and another in Smaller Svorotva (collator: Stefan Kuncewicz; parish priest: Maciej Tomaszewski) with 195 parishioners. However, the spatial form of the latter church is unknown.

The stone Uniate church in Greater Svorotva

Between 1804 and 1823 the wooden Uniate church in Greater Svorotva was probably destroyed and it became necessary to build a new one. Slownik Geograficzny Krolestwa Polskiego ("The Geographical Dictionary of the Polish Kingdom") brings the following information:

"Two villages (Greater and Smaller S.) upon the Svorotva River, the Molczadka's tributary, Novogrodek district, Poczepowo county, RC parish of Novogrodek. The Holy Trinity parish church, built of stone, 1823, funded by the Niezabitowskis, has about two wloks of land [cca. 34 hectars – JKL], up to 1,000 inhabitants, a parish school since 1886." ²³⁾.

Despite the Eastern Orthodox rite officially in effect (since the second half of the 18^th century in the lands of the Russian Partition of Poland, the Uniate rite was being consistently and ruthlessly abolished), both the Svorotva church's dedication and shape were retained, probably for the local and perhaps family traditions. However, the new church's form was significantly and creatively enriched. The work of an unknown architect reflects well on his perfection in the trade.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity stone Uniate church, 1823.
View and plan according to the in situ measurements and a photograph from the Archives in Vilnius.
(From: S.A. Sergachev, Bieloruskoye narodnoye zodchestvo [The Belarussian Folk Architecture] 1992, p. 194).

Sergachev provides a description of this church and his description's verisimilitude can be confirmed today while visiting the church's remnants:

"… made of stone, duplicating the plan, entrance system, and composition of the preceding wooden church. However, the organization of the inner space has changed; the altar and the choir have been placed in their traditional places. (…) The triangularity of the original plan of the wooden church expressed not only the particular symbolism of the religion, but also the builders' striving that, while preserving the tradition, they would create an architecture not very similar to that of Roman Catholic churches. Such dissimilarity was required by the official civic and the church authorities, particularly after the Uniate Synod of Zamosc in 1720." ²⁴⁾

This description should be amended. Important for the structural reasons the following components of the building were made of brick and plastered: corners, columns in the vertices, window and door openings' surrounds, outside niches in the wall of the main entrance, a niche for the liturgical equipment, and sockets of the choir's wooden gallery.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
The surrounds of the openings. State as of 2002.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.

The corners were rusticated with plaster. The material filling the remaining volume of the walls is medium-sized undressed erratic granite rock blocks bonded with mortar. For the reasons of strengthening and decoration the unavoidable large mortar surfaces amongst the rocks have been garreted, i.e. stuffed with small crushed pebbles, predominantly black in colour (basalt or smelter slag?). In this way a peculiar and very vivid wall surface texture has been produced.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
The wall's texture. State as of 2002.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.

The entrance belfry gate of the church as well as the ruins of the manor house in Svorotva have been made in the identical manner.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
The belfry gate. State as of 2002.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.



Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
View of the complex.
A reconstruction according to the view by Sergachev and the in-situ state as of 2002.
J. Czubinski, the visualization by J. Tucholska.

The historical review outlined earlier in this paper points out that in any building established on a triangular plan the solution to the problem of vertices is of particular importance. In Svorotva this problem was solved in a masterly manner. The edges of the vertices were cut blunt at the walls’ level with a short piece of the wall. In the area of the small triangles in the very vertices, Tuscany columns of classical proportions and entasis were set up. The entablature however forms a square slab set diagonally.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
The column in the southern vertex. State as of 2002.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.

An opening at the junction of the western wall and the terrain implies that there may still be a basement under the nave. However, no entrance to it was found as of 2002. This matter however requires further investigation.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church. 1823.
The opening in the western wall. State as of 2002.
Photo: J.K. Lenartowicz.

It is worthwhile to put and describe this church in the context of the village's landscape. The church axis goes through the belfry gate and then intersects the main road that now has been much widened and thus infringing the church's lot.

Across the road there is a spacious clearing, or a fairground, on which ruins of a building can still be found. Perhaps a village inn once stood there.

Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate stone church, 1823.
Situation plan.
A reconstruction according to the state as of 2002 by J. Czubinski; visualization by J. Tucholska.



Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate stone church, 1823.
Bird-eye view.
A reconstruction according to the state as of 2002 by J. Czubinski; visualization by J. Tucholska.



Greater Svorotva. The Holy Trinity Uniate church, 1823.
General view.
A reconstruction according to the drawings of S.A. Sergachev and the in-situ state as of 2002 by J. Czubinski; visualization by J. Tucholska.

Towards east, the road lowers somewhat to cross a small river, and raises again climbing a hill. Below the summit of this hill, on its southern slope, there still are ruins of a palace. This part of the manor estate is connected with the church with an exquisite oak-tree alley, parallel to today's asphalt road.

A reconstruction of the emergence of the idea

Symbolic meaning

As seen from the concise review in the opening sections of this paper, the equilateral triangular shape was being used as a building plan not so much for its practical utilization, which indeed it did hamper, but for the appeal of its form and, sometimes, for its symbolic meaning. For such a shape encodes the threefold equality. Therefore it can be used to visualize the Holy Trinity in sacred buildings, such as a church or a Trinitarian (or other) monastery. The equilateral triangle also resembles the trowel, i.e. the basic mason's tool. Therefore, it could be used to connote a Freemasonry organization.

A question however remains about the source that would have given rise to such an idea – unusual in its simplicity – in a remote Lithuanian village. Was it a result of thorough studies of architectural manuals or a product of wild fantasy? The two consecutively built churches in Greater Svorotva were dedicated to the Holy Trinity. In Lithuania of the 18^th and the 19^th centuries it could above all mean an attempt in the search for identity.

The Holy Trinity / Filioque

Seeking to substantiate the application of a triangular plan in its religiously symbolic meaning may prove most convincing. Clearly, the factor that once played the decisive role in Svorotva was similar to that in Rushton, i.e. the notion of the Holy Trinity.

The crowning work of the Roman Catholic Council that debated in the years 1431–1445 in several cities such as Basle, Ferrara, Florence, and Rome, commonly known as the Council of Florence (1439–1442), was the renewal of the union of several Eastern Churches with the Roman Catholic Holy See. Of particular importance for the unions with the Greeks, Armenians, Copts, Syriacs, Chaldeans, and Maronites of Cyprus was to define the teaching about the Holy Trinity ²⁵⁾. According to Fr. B. Huculak ²⁶⁾, the view that the dispute about the dogma on the descent of the Holy Spirit was the reason for the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Churches is unfounded. It appears, however, that the analysis of the meaning of the Holy Trinity in terms of the interdependence of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, particularly that of the latter, did indeed occupy the key position among the Council's documents.

The entire discussion concerned the formula of the so-called Filioque ²⁷⁾, i.e. "and the Son" – the theological formulation of the Holy Spirit's descent both from the Father and the Son, consequently "through the Son", and not directly from the Father. This formulation was introduced to the symbols of faith by Western Church but it was rejected by Eastern Orthodox Church as a non-canonical addition. It is considered to have been one of the causes of the Eastern Schism and thus the subject of the ongoing theological dispute. And today it remains one of the topics of the ecumenical dialogue. The Filioque formula appeared first in connection to Arianism, known also as Antitrinitarianism, (4^th c. AD) in Augustine's writings who had defined it. The controversy between Constantinople and Rome was caused by the condemnation of Focyan by the latter. Eastern Orthodox Church declined to embrace and introduce the resolutions of the Florence Union. Orthodox Church rejected the Union fully at its Constantinople Council in 1484 and worked out instead its own formula for accepting a Church into its folds that required, among others, renouncing the Filioque. To the contrary, the principles agreed upon at the Florence Council became the foundations of every union with the Roman Catholic Church, including the Union of Brest.

The Synod of Brest-Litovsk (1596) enacted the Act of Union of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It resulted from the political necessity to defend against the claims of Tsarist Russia – after the creation of the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate in Moscow – to the command over the entire Orthodox faith, and consequently over the Orthodox Church in Polish and Lithuanian lands. The Brest Union constituted the revival of the earlier Florence Union. The part of Orthodox Church that consequently united with Roman Catholicism was called Uniate Church and its followers the Uniates. Soon, Vilna became the main centre for the pro-Union propaganda ²⁸⁾. Clearly, the Uniate churches in Biesiady and Svorotva were among the worship buildings that served this new situation. Hence their architecture needed to embody the essence of the new religious rite.

One can easily imagine that new Uniate churches cropping up in the 17^th century tended to mark in some way their identity via their architectural form. On the other hand they frequently referred to the Holy Trinity's denomination as to an essential related to the specifics of the Uniate faith that clearly differentiated it from that of Eastern Orthodoxy. The search for a new form of the building that would combine the specifics of the newly introduced Greek-Catholic or Uniate liturgy with the stressing of the essential, as it then seemed, specifics of this rite, i.e. the acceptance of the Filioque, soon became the driving force behind the emergence of unusually shaped churches in Lithuania. Perhaps the triangular shape alone was a sufficient determinant of the new rite and was not exclusively linked to the particular denomination of a church.

Freemasonry

Tritely, with no prove to it, the Uniate church in Greater Svorotwa is sometimes being linked to Freemasonry thought. For example, when writing about Greater Svorotwa, J. Zmigrodzki interjected: "A Uniate church of an unusual form whose plan represents an isosceles triangle (formerly a Masonic Lodge)" ²⁹⁾. Probably referring to this statement, S.A. Sergachev writes:

"One of the scholars wrongly concluded that this church owned its unusual architecture to Freemasonry. The church is a clear example of transferring the forms and the methods of carpentry into stone architecture, a proof that in provincial regions of Belarus, even during the flourishing Classicism architecture, carpentry continued to affect stone-building. This can be explained by continuation of the architectural and building traditions and by broad participation of carpenters in the building process. One should surely note that the effect of stone architecture on the forms and techniques of carpentry was much stronger in this period." [30] ³⁰⁾

While at this stage of the research it is not possible to prove a Freemasonic provenance of the Greater Svorotva's Uniate church, or at least a Freemasonic usage of it, one cannot fully agree with the above argument. For in the second, stone church the solutions for its vertices certainly did not result from a carpentry tradition.

Freemasonry in Lithuania was a strong movement. The first Freemasonic lodges in Vilno were established in the 1770s. Subsequent to the first Freemasonic workshops named "The Good Shepherd" and "The Ardent Lithuanian", other ones like the "School of Socrates" and "The Slavic Eagle" were founded. According to Malachowski and Lempicki, "The Slavic Eagle" Lodge was established in July 1819 or, according to the report on this lodge for the year 5820, on March 21, 1819 ³¹⁾. Until the abolishment of Freemasonry in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1822 more than ten lodges existed there. Among the Freemasons in Lithuania there were politicians, scientists, military men, and, what may be meaningful to our considerations, clergymen (e. g. Prince N. Puzyna, the Bishop Suffragan of Vilno, and M. Dluski, a Vilnian Prelate) ³²⁾. The Niezabitowskis' affiliation is documented. Stefan Niezabitowski, son of Jakub Niezabitowski, lieutenant of the Polish Army and the Grodno province marshal in 1847, was a member of the "Friends of Mankind" Lodge, and achieved the 4^th degree of initiation in 1821.

However, the following fact speaks strongly against the Freemasonic tread to have been present in Greater Svorotva's Uniate church of 1823. This church was certainly a reconstruction of its precursor – the original wooden church of 1747, thence eighty years older. The first church was built when no one yet was talking about Freemasonry in Lithuania. And when the second Uniate church was built, Freemasonic lodges had already been banned in Lithuania since a year before.

One visual argument that speaks for the Freemasonry tread may be the shape of the plan, which corresponds to the outline of a trowel. Investors, who were connected to Freemasonry ³³⁾, gladly used symbols depicting masonry tools. No doubt, in Greater Svorotva the shape of the church was inherited from its wooden predecessor. However, the fact that in Lithuania some clergy were members of Freemasonry allows for possible links between Christian and Freemasonic ideas and for the effects of the two on the architecture. The meticulous elaboration of architectural detail of this church, in particular the bold solution to the vertex problem clearly indicates an engagement of a master of the trade.

Summary and Discussion

The equilateral triangle is the obvious extreme of the central plan. It is quite unthinkable that the Renaissance architects, frequently being simultaneously mathematicians, would not have been interested in a triangular form of the plan. The natural context once encouraging consideration of a building on such a plan was the Holy Trinity dedication. And it was indeed the case. The Triangular Lodge in Rushton was built, Pozzo's plans were drawn. But only Rushton has materialized. In other cases the pure triangular design remained only on paper, or was substantially modified. As a result, the expressiveness of the form suffered.

The Holy Trinity, due to the Filioque controversy, is a characteristic that marks the junction of the Western and the Eastern churches. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, upon the unification line of the Brest Union and on the line at which the two churches came into actual contact, the Holy Trinity denomination was the symbol best expressing the specifics of the new Uniate church.

From here it is only one step to architecture. Did the architects mean more the architecture parlante or the biblia pauperum? They were not afraid to reach to the simplest symbolic forms, i.e. the triangle, equilateral of course, that would reproduce best the equality of the Divine Persons. There was no need to derive an analogy from Rushton as the reasons for creating such a form were identical in the two places. No transfer was needed. No mysterious visit of a Lithuanian to England or a Roman Catholic Englishman's eastward expedition to Lithuania was necessary in order to transfer the concept of such a building.

Lithuanian Uniate churches no doubt constitute a distinct spatial and liturgical group, an achievement in uniting the spatial idea with the religious thought of the time. However further studies are required in order to establish whether or not the Uniate churches in Samogitia (Zmudz) could also be included in this group. Throughout the history, the latter churches have been represented by a small number of tiny buildings of a modest but traditional architecture of which none but one have survived, and moreover only in ruins. This notwithstanding, one must stress the originality of this architecture on the European scale. To this end, in the stone Uniate church in Greater Svorotva, which clearly shows its author's flair for architectural design, we can but admire the masterly solution to the vertex problem. On this solution one can conclude that it is more consistent and more vividly striking than, for example, that introduced in the not realized Pozzo's design. It should also be noted that from the end of the 18^th century the Russian political pressure had limited the construction activities and the experimentation in the area, hence impeding ingenuity in building such churches.

Every builder knows it well that the triangle is a rigid figure, resistant to deformation, contrary to other polygons. R. Buckminster Fuller calls the triangle "the only self-stabilizing polygon". If we do not break the element that makes one of the triangle's sides, we are not able to alter its shape. The inherent resistance of the triangle to any change and transformation can be seen as a characteristic adding a symbolic might to the temples in question.

A total rejection of the Freemasonry tread within the Uniate church in Great Svorotva would require a prior detailed archival studies pertaining to the Niezabitowski family and their village of Svorotva. Perhaps we will never find what the actual situation was like.

Acknowledgments

This study would not have been possible without the contributions from several persons. Dr. Jacek Czubinski was the author's (JKL's) companion in the exploration trip to today's Belarus in 2002, and he later supervised the computer-generated reconstruction of the church in question. Ms. Magdalena Czubinska with a great intuition and thoroughness has researched similar designs and realizations; this research is expected to result in a comprehensive catalogue of such buildings. Mr. Blazej Skazinski drew the author's attention to the church in Planès. Mr. Kalist provided the author with current high quality photos of the Planès church. Professor S.A. Sergachev of the Belorusian National Technical University (BNTU) in Minsk and his publications were the author's first guide through the history of "triangular" Uniate churches in Belarus, as well as a source for bibliography and reconstruction of these buildings. Professor Elena Morozova and Professor Vladimir Tracewski of the BNTU facilitated the information exchange. Mr. Hans-Everhard Mennemann of Fachhochschule Münster provided publications on Bruck and Münster. Mr. Jozef Oszacki of New York sent to the author an article on Boromini's inspirations. Ms. Justyna Tucholska worked out computerized drawings and visualization of the church in Greater Svorotva.

To all and every one of these persons the author is deeply grateful. In the planned continuation of the present study, an attempt will be made to catalogue the buildings established on an equilateral triangle plan.

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Footnotes:

1. See: Wolfgang Götz, Zentralbau und Zentralbautendenz in der gotischen Architektur. Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin, 1968.   (return)

2. Ryszard Brykowski, Drewniana architektura cerkiewna na koronnych ziemiach Rzeczypospolitej [Architecture of Wooden Eastern Orthodox Churches in the Crown Lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]. Towarzystwo Opieki nad Zabytkami, Warszawa 1955, p. 75.   (return)

3. Maria i Kazimierz Piechotkowie, Bramy Nieba. Boznice drewniane [The Gates of Heaven. Wooden Synagogues]. Wydawnictwo Krupski i S-ka, Warszawa 1996; Bramy Nieba. Boznice murowane na ziemiach dawnej Rzeczypospolitej [The Gates of Heaven. Stone and Brick Synagogues in the Lands of the Former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]. Wydawnictwo Krupski i S-ka, Warszawa 1999.   (return)

4. Éugene Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnée de l'architecture française. Paris 1854–1868, v. 2, p. 443. Note: Chapelle. Also: Camille Enlart, Manuel d'archeologie française. Paris 1927, v.1, p. 245. A reference therein to the monograph article: H. Sabarthez, 'Église triangulaire de Planès', [in:] Bulletin de la Soc. Agricole, Scient. et Litter. de Pyrenées-Orientales, 1895. The building plan included therein is that used by Enlart (ill. 85). Robert de Lasteyre, L'architecture religieuse en France a l'epoque romane. Paris 1929, shows a photograph of this building on p. 283 (ill. 277).   (return)

5. Wolfgang Götz, op. cit., p. 262.   (return)

6. Ibidem.   (return)

7. See: Joseph Gwilt, The Encyclopedia of Architecture – Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. Longmans, Green 1867. Reprint: Bonanza Books, 1982, s. 196–199; 1281.   (return)

8. For more on Triangular Lodge see e.g.: Robert Harbison, The Built, the Unbuilt and the Unbuildable. In Pursuit of Architectural Meaning. The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1992, p. 70. (second printing; first printing 1991).   (return)

9. Callisto Radiant (T. Roberti), Mystical Meaning in Sacred Western Architecture, 1997. The text is available in the Internet at: http://members.aol.com/sabrin1315/arch.htm   (return)

10. Joseph Connors, "S. Ivo alla Sapienza: The First Three Minutes". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, LV, 1996, pp. 38–57, Fig. 12.   (return)

11. David Watkin, A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King, London 1996. Therein, the quote included here is given without specifying its source.   (return)

12. The spatial concept was realized in the hunting lodge of Alexander Sulkowski in Wloszakowice, 1749–1752, designed in late Baroque Style probably by Karol Marcin Frantz. The plan is explaned by analogy to trowel – freemasonry symbol (Sulkowski belonged to a Freemasonry lodge).   (return)

13. J.M. Richards, 800 Years of Finnish Architecture. David and Charles, Vancouver 1978. S. 186.   (return)

14. More on it in S.A. Sergaczew, Bieloruskoye narodnoye zodchestvo [The Belarussian Folk Architecture]. Uradzhay, Minsk 1992, p. 193–194.   (return)

15. See: Alge Jankevičiene, "Architektura drewnianych kosciolow na Zmudzi w XVIII w." [Architecture of timber churches in Samogitia in 18th c.] [in:] Sztuka pograniczy Rzeczypospolitej w okresie nowozytnym [Art of the bordeland of Rzeczpospolita in the modern era]. Arx Regia, Warsaw 1998, p. 217; the church is also mentioned by the same author in: Zemaiciu mediniu bazynciu architektura. Vilnius 1996, s. 30–31 (it is not mentioned in: "Dzieje architektury drewnianych kosciolow na Litwie" [The History of Architecture of Wooden Churches in Lithuania], [in:] Litwa i Polska. Dziedzictwo sztuki sakralnej [Lithuania and Poland. The Heritage of the Sacred Art]. DiG, Warszawa 2004, pp. 31–38); Ryszard Brykowski, "Drewniana architektura koscielna Wielkiego Ksiestwa Litewskiego" [Wooden Church Architecture in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania] [in:] Sztuka ziem wschodnich Rzeczpospolitej XVI–XVII w. [The Art of the Eastern Lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 16^th–17^th centuries]. TN KUL, Lublin 2000, pp. 219, 221–222, 238.   (return)

16. M. Radwan, Kosciol greckokatolicki w zaborze rosyjskim okolo 1803 roku [The Greek-Catholic Church in the Russian Partition of Poland about 1803]. Instytut Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej, Lublin 2003, p. 132.   (return)

17. The only available information on this Uniate (and subsequently Orthodox) church is given in: Slownik Geograficzny Krolestwa Polskiego i innych krajow slowianskich [The Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland and Other Slavic Countries]. Warszawa 1885.   (return)

18. S.A. Sergaczew, op. cit., p. 194–195.   (return)

19. These data are courtesy of Professor E. Morozova and Professor S.A. Sergachev of the BNTU, Minsk.   (return)

20. "Protokol wizyty Jeneralnej dekanatow Cyrynskiego i Nowogrodzkiego, przez xiedza Tomasza Woszczellowicza, delegowanego wizytatora w roku 1798 czynionej sporzadzony" [The Protocol of the General Visitation in the Cyryn and Novogrodek Deaneries carried in 1798 by Father Tomasz Woszczellowicz, the delegated inspector, made by him] [in:] Archeograficzeskij sbornik dokumentow ... [Collection of archeographic documents concerning history of North-West Russia, edited by Vilna Scientific Society. Vol. XIV], Vilna 1904 (in Russian and Polish). Pages 116ff refer to Greater Svorotva.   (return)

21. S.A. Sergaczew, op. cit., p. 194.   (return)

22. Wizity (otczotnyje swiedienija) uniatskich cerkwiej i monastyriej za 1804 god. ...[Visitations of Uniate churches and monasteries in the year 1804] The State Historical Archives in St. Petersburg, f. 824, op. 2, d. 118, k. 1–57). From M. Radwan, op. cit.   (return)

23. Slownik Geograficzny Krolestwa Polskiego i innych krajow slowianskich [The Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland and Other Slavic Countries]. (1885); entry: "Sworotwa".   (return)

24. S.A. Sergaczew, op. cit., p. 195.   (return)

25. See the source documents in: Dokumenty soborow powszechnych, t. III (1414–1445). Konstancja, Bazylea, Ferrara, Florencja, Rzym [Documents of the General Councils, vol. 3 (1414–1445). Constance, Basle, Ferrara, Florence, Rome]. (Selection and commentaries by Fr. A. Baran, and Fr. H. Pietras SJ). Wydawnictwo WAM, Krakow 2004, pp. 459ff.   (return)

26. Fr. Benedykt Huculak OFM, Duch Ojca i Syna wedlug rdzennej teologii greckiej [The Spirit of Father and Son according to the Original Greek Theology]. Wydawnictwo Zakonu Pijarow, Krakow 1996, pp. 16ff.   (return)

27. See: Encyklopedia Katolicka [The Catholic Encyclopaedia], vol. 5. KUL, Lublin 1989, entry: "Filioque".   (return)

28. See: Fr. P. Skarga, O rzadzie i jednosci Kosciola Bozego pod jednym pasterzem [On the Authority and the Unity of the Divine Church under One Shepherd]. Wilno [Vilna] 1577.   (return)

29. Jozef Zmigrodzki (P. Eng.), Nowogrodek i okolice [Novogrodek and Its Environs]. 3rd ed. by Nowogrodzki Oddzial Polsk[iego] Tow[arzystwa] Krajoznawczego, 1931, pp. 92–93, entry: "Sworotwa Wielka".   (return)

30. S.A. Sergaczew, op. cit., p. 195.   (return)

31. S. Malachowski-Lempicki, Wykaz polskich loz wolnomularskich [The List of Polish Freemasonic Lodges], Krakow 1929, p. 149; BANL, sign. 516403, "Slowianskij Oriel w Wilnie" [The Slavic Eagle in Vilnius], 5820. This information is from an Internet webpage by Mr. Zenowiusz Ponarski of Toronto, ON, Canada: http://www.wlnp.pl/9–10,%20Ponarski.htm   (return)

32. Data taken from the Internet webpage of Mr. Zenowiusz Ponarski (Szczecin).   (return)

33. Cf. Footnote No. 12.   (return)

Articles by Krzysztof Lenartowicz published in Zwoje – The Scrolls:

• J. Krzysztof Lenartowicz: Przestrzen sakralna na rzucie trojkata, Zwoje 44, 2006
• J. Krzysztof Lenartowicz: Sacred Space on the Triangular Plan, Zwoje 44, 2006
• J. Krzysztof Lenartowicz: Smok szalony w Bilbao, Zwoje 44, 2006
• J. Krzysztof Lenartowicz: Architektura trwogi, Zwoje 3/40, 2004
• J. Krzysztof Lenartowicz: Architecture of Terror, Zwoje 3/40, 2004

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